The issue of tackling examination malpractices has become a growing concern to the stakeholders including the government, school administrators, and society. A number of issues could have led to these problems and the most pronounced among them is examination malpractice. All these are frightening signals which portend danger for the future of the country. University lecturers and employers of labour have always complained about the quality of school products. ![]() A situation where secondary school leavers cannot spell their names correctly and some graduates of a higher institution cannot construct very good letters is a cause for concern. There is a decline in the quality of Senior Secondary School leavers to graduate from higher institutions in Nigeria. Overall, we argue for a closer examination of individual-level psychological factors and the use of multiple methods to help elucidate the ambiguities concerning the “civilizing” effect found in the BWC literature. We also highlight the methodological issues (i.e., contamination, unit of analysis, and low base rates) that have burdened past studies involving field experiments and advocate for the use of multiple methods to strengthen any existing weaknesses in the literature. In the current review, we aim to reconcile these inconsistencies by discussing psychological factors (i.e., police attitudes toward BWCs, civilian attitudes toward the police, geographic psychology, officer perceptions of self-legitimacy, and civilian stress) that may moderate the civilizing effect of BWCs. ![]() ![]() However, other studies have found null effects (e.g., Yokum et al., 2017 ) or even the opposite findings (i.e., increases in use of force reports Ariel et al., 2016a ). Some studies have shown a reduction in the use of force reports (e.g., Ariel et al., 2015 ) and civilian complaints ( Hedberg et al., 2017 ) as a result of officers utilizing BWCs. Past studies on the “civilizing” effect of body-worn cameras (BWC) on police and civilian behavior have yielded mixed results.
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